Automobile safety

Automobile safety is the investigate and practice of design, construction, equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of traffic collisions. Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design.

One of the very first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory of Buffalo, Fresh York. The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards. [1] However, the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim, the pedestrian. [ citation needed ]

In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every eight minutes, and are 1.Five times more likely than a vehicle’s occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing. [Two]

Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily diminished injury and death rates in all very first world countries. Nevertheless, auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths, an estimated total of 1.Two million in 2004, or 25% of the total from all causes. Of those killed by autos, almost two-thirds are pedestrians. [Trio] Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices, regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives. [Four]

Coalitions to promote road and automobile safety, such as Together for Safer Roads (TSR), brings together global private sector companies, across industries, to collaborate on improving road safety. TSR brings together members’ skill, data, technology, and global networks to concentrate on five road safety areas that will make the greatest influence globally and within local communities. [Five]

The rising trend of Autonomous Things is largely driven by the budge towards the Autonomous car, that both addresses the main existing safety issues and creates fresh issues. The autonomous car is expected to be much safer than existing vehicles, by eliminating the single most dangerous element – the driver. The Center for Internet and Society at Stanford Law School claims that “Some ninety percent of motor vehicle crashes are caused at least in part by human error”. [6] But while safety standards like the ISO twenty six thousand two hundred sixty two specify the required safety, it is still a cargo on the industry to demonstrate acceptable safety.

Contents

Work-related roadway crashes are the leading cause of death from traumatic injuries in the U.S. workplace. They accounted for almost 12,000 deaths inbetween one thousand nine hundred ninety two and 2000. Deaths and injuries from these roadway crashes result in enlargened costs to employers and lost productivity in addition to their toll in human suffering. [7] Truck drivers tend to bear higher fatality rates than workers in other occupations, but concerns about motor vehicle safety in the workplace are not limited to those surrounding the operation of large trucks. Workers outside the motor carrier industry routinely operate company-owned vehicles for deliveries, sales and repair calls, client visits etc. In these instances, the employer providing the vehicle generally plays a major role in setting safety, maintenance, and training policy. [7] As in non-occupational driving, youthfull drivers are especially at risk. In the workplace, 45% of all fatal injuries to workers under age eighteen inbetween one thousand nine hundred ninety two and two thousand in the United States resulted from transportation incidents. [8]

The terms “active” and “passive” are elementary but significant terms in the world of automotive safety. “Active safety” is used to refer to technology assisting in the prevention of a crash and “passive safety” to components of the vehicle (primarily airbags, seatbelts and the physical structure of the vehicle) that help to protect occupants during a crash. [9] [Ten]

Crash avoidance Edit

Crash avoidance systems and devices help the driver — and, increasingly, help the vehicle itself — to avoid a collision. This category includes:

Driver assistance Edit

A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems, which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle. Driver assistance systems include:

• DADS [permanent dead link] :’ DADS : Driver Alertness Detection System[11] System to prevent crashes caused by exhaustion
• Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision.
• Infrared night vision systems to increase eyeing distance beyond headlamp range
• Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight planks to light the driver’s way through kinks and maximize observing distance without partially dazzling other drivers
• Switch sides backup sensors, which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing
• Backup camera
• Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front
• Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel
• Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems
• Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin
• Electronic Stability Control, which intervenes to avert an forthcoming loss of control
• Anti-lock braking systems
• Electronic brakeforce distribution systems
• Emergency brake assist systems
• Cornering Brake Control systems
• Assured Clear Distance Ahead measurement and speed governance systems
• Precrash system
• Automated parking system
• Obstacle detection sensor systems notify a driver how close their vehicle is to an object – usually providing a distance measurement, to the inch, as to how close they are.

Crashworthiness Edit

Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening. Much research is carried out using anthropomorphic crash test dummies.

• Seatbelts limit the forward motility of an occupant, open up to absorb energy, to lengthen the time of the occupant’s negative acceleration in a crash, reducing the loading on the occupants bod. They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags.
• Airbags inflate to cushion the influence of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicle’s interior. The most significant being the prevention of direct influence of the driver’s head with the steering wheel and door pile.
• Laminated windshields remain in one lump when impacted, preventing invasion of unbelted occupants’ goes and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car instantly following a collision. It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell. Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally acute edges, rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does.
• Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision, displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the negative acceleration influence force on the vehicle occupants. Vehicles will include a front, rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too.
• Safety Cell – the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials, at places subject to high geysers in a crash, in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants.
• Side influence protection slats, also called anti-intrusion bars.
• Collapsible universally jointed steering columns, along with steering wheel airbag. The steering system is mounted behind the front axle – behind and protected by, the front crumple zone. This reduces the risk and severity of driver influence or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash.
• Pedestrian protection systems.
• Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts, on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash, and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas.
• Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier inbetween passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs, station wagons and vans. These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo. They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover.

Post-crash survivability Edit

Post-crash survivability is the chance that drivers and passengers get through a crash after it occurs. Technology such as Advanced Automatic Collision Notification can automatically place calls to emergency services and send information about a vehicle collision.

Pedestrian safety Edit

Automobiles are much more dangerous to pedestrians than they are to drivers and passengers. Two-thirds of 1.Trio million yearly auto related deaths are pedestrians. [1] Since at least the early 1970s, attention has also been given to vehicle design regarding the safety of pedestrians in car-pedestrian collisions. Proposals in Europe would require cars sold there to have a minimum/maximum bondage mask (bonnet) height. [12] From two thousand six the use of “bull bars”, a style on 4x4s and SUVs, became illegal in the European Union, after having been banned on all fresh cars in 2002. [13]

Conspicuity Edit

Lights and reflectors Edit

Vehicles are tooled with a diversity of lights and reflectors to mark their presence, position, width, length, and direction of travel as well as to convey the driver’s intent and deeds to other drivers. These include the vehicle’s headlamps, front and rear position lamps, side marker lights and reflectors, turn signals, stop (brake) lamps, and reversing lamps. School buses and Semi-trailer trucks in North America are required to bear retroreflective strips outlining their side and rear perimeters for greater conspicuity at night. [14]

Daytime running lamps have been required in Nordic countries since the mid-1970s, in Canada since 1990, and across the European Union since seven February 2011. [15] [16]

Vehicle colour Edit

A two thousand four essay on the relation inbetween car colour and safety stated that no previous studies had been scientifically conclusive. [17] Since then, a Swedish investigate found that pink cars are involved in the fewest and black cars are involved in the most crashes (Land transport NZ 2005). In Auckland Fresh Zealand, a probe found that there was a significantly lower rate of serious injury in silver cars, with higher rates in brown, black, and green cars. The Vehicle Colour Examine, conducted by Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC) and published in 2007, analysed 855,258 crashes that occurring inbetween one thousand nine hundred eighty seven and two thousand four in the Australian states of Victoria and Western Australia that resulted in injury or in a vehicle being towed away. [Legitimate] The investigate analysed risk by light condition. It found that in daylight black cars were 12% more likely than white to be involved in a collision, followed by grey cars at 11%, silver cars at 10%, and crimson and blue cars at 7%, with no other colours found to be significantly more or less risky than white. At dawn or dusk the risk ratio for black cars leaped to 47% more likely than white, and that for silver cars to 15%. In the hours of darkness only crimson and silver cars were found to be significantly more risky than white, by 10% and 8% respectively. [ citation needed ]

Unused safety features Edit

Many different inventions and ideas which may or may not have been practical about auto safety have been put forward but never made it to a production car. Such items include the driver seat in the middle (to give the person a better view) [Nineteen] (the exception being the Mclaren F1 sports car), rear-facing seats (except for infant car seats), and control stick steering. [ citation needed ]

18th century–19th century Edit

Automobile safety may have become an issue almost from the beginning of mechanised road vehicle development. The 2nd steam-powered “Fardier” (artillery tractor), created by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1771, is reported by some to have crashed into a wall during its demonstration run. However, according to Georges Ageon, [20] the earliest mention of this occurrence dates from one thousand eight hundred one and it does not feature in contemporary accounts. One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31, one thousand eight hundred sixty nine in Parsonstown, Ireland. [21]

1920s Edit

In 1922, the Duesenburg Model A became the very first car to have four-wheel hydraulic brakes. [22]

1930s Edit

In 1930, safety glass became standard on all Ford cars. [23] In the 1930s, plastic surgeon Claire L. Straith and physician C. J. Strickland advocated the use of seat belts and padded dashboards. Strickland founded the Automobile Safety League of America. [24] [25]

In 1934, GM performed the very first barrier crash test. [26]

In 1936, the Hudson Terraplane came with the very first back-up brake system. Should the hydraulic brakes fail, the brake pedal would activate a set of mechanical brakes for the back wheels. [27] [28]

In 1937, Chrysler, Plymouth, DeSoto, and Dodge added such items as a vapid, sleek dash with recessed controls, rounded door treats, a windshield wiper control made of rubber, and the back of the front seat strongly padded to provide protection for rear passengers. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34]

1940s Edit

In 1942, Hugh DeHaven published the classic Mechanical analysis of survival in falls from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet. [35]

In one thousand nine hundred forty seven the American Tucker was built with the world’s very first padded dashboard. It also came with middle headlight that turned with the steering wheel, a front steel bulkhead, and a front safety chamber. [36]

In one thousand nine hundred forty nine SAAB incorporated aircraft safety thinking into automobiles making the Saab ninety two the very first production SAAB car with a safety box. [37]

Also in 1949, the Chrysler Crown Imperial was the very first car to come with standard disc brakes. [38] [39]

1950s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred fifty five a USAF surgeon who advised the US Surgeon General wrote an article on how to make cars safer for those railing in it. Aside from the usual safety features, such as seat belts and padded dash boards, bumper shocks were introduced. [40]

In 1956, Ford attempted unsuccessfully to interest Americans in purchasing safer cars with their Lifeguard safety package. (Its attempt nevertheless earns Ford Motor Trend ‘ s “Car of the Year” award for 1956.) [41]

In 1958, the United Nations established the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations, an international standards bod advancing auto safety. Many of the most life saving safety innovations, like seat belts and roll cell construction were brought to market under its auspices. That same year, Volvo engineer Nils Bohlin invented and patented the three-point lap and shoulder seat belt, which became standard equipment on all Volvo cars in 1959. [42] Over the next several decades, three-point safety belts were step by step mandated in all vehicles by regulators via the industrialised world. [ citation needed ]

In 1959, American Motors Corporation suggested the very first optional head rests for the front seat. [43] Also in 1959, the Cadillac Cyclone concept by Harley Earl had “a radar-based crash-avoidance system” located in the on the nose cones of the vehicle that would make audible and visual signals to the driver if there were obstacles in the vehicles path. [44]

1960s Edit

Effective on fresh passenger cars sold in the United States after January 1, 1964. front outboard lap belts were required. [ citation needed ]

On September 9, 1966, the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act became law in the U.S., the very first mandatory federal safety standards for motor vehicles. [45]

Effective in 1966, US-market passenger cars were required to be tooled with padded instrument panels, front and rear outboard lap belts, and white switch roles (backup) lamps. [ citation needed ]

In 1966, the U.S. established the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) with automobile safety as one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was reliant on the DOT for administration and funding. However, in one thousand nine hundred seventy five the organization was made totally independent by the Independent Safety Board Act (in P.L. 93-633; forty nine U.S.C. 1901). [ citation needed ]

In 1967, equipment specifications by such major fleet purchasers as the City and County of Los Angeles, California encouraged the voluntary installation in most fresh cars sold in the US of safety devices, systems, and design features including: [ citation needed ]

• Elimination of protruding knobs and controls in passenger compartment
• Extra padding on the instrument panel and other interior surfaces
• Mounting points for front outboard shoulder belts
• Four-way hazard flashers
• A uniform P-R-N-D-L gear sequence for automatic transmission gear selectors
• Dual-circuit brake hydraulic systems

In 1968, the precursor agency to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s very first Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards took effect. These required shoulder belts for left and right front-seat vehicle occupants, side marker lights, collapsible steering columns, and other safety features. One thousand nine hundred sixty nine witnessed the addition of head restraints for front outboard passengers, addressing the problem of whiplash in rear-end collisions. These safety requirements did not apply to vehicles classified as “commercial,” such as light-duty pickup trucks. Thus manufacturers did not always include such hardware in these vehicles, even tho’ many did passenger-car duty. [ citation needed ]

Volvo developed the very first rear-facing child seat in one thousand nine hundred sixty four and introduced its own booster seat in 1978. [46]

1970s Edit

In 1974, GM suggested driver and passenger airbags as optional equipment on large Cadillacs, Buicks, and Oldsmobiles. [47]

In one thousand nine hundred seventy nine NHTSA began crash-testing popular cars and publishing the results, to inform consumers and encourage manufacturers to improve the safety of their vehicles. Originally, the US NCAP (Fresh Car Assessment Program) crash tests examined compliance with the occupant-protection provisions of FMVSS 208. Over the subsequent years, this NHTSA program was step by step expanded in scope. In 1997, the European Fresh Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) was established to test fresh vehicles’ safety spectacle and publish the results for vehicle shoppers’ information. [48] The NHTSA crash tests are presently operated and published as the U.S. branch of the international NCAP programme. [49]

1980s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred eighty four Fresh York State passed the very first U.S. law requiring seat belt use in passenger cars. Seat belt laws have since been adopted by forty nine states (Fresh Hampshire has not). [50] NHTSA estimates the resulting enhanced seat belt use saves Ten,000 per year in the United States. [51]

In one thousand nine hundred eighty six the central 3rd brake light was mandated in North America with most of the world following with similar standards in automotive lighting. [ citation needed ]

In 1989, companies in Israel implemented Advanced Brake Warning systems, where the driver would be alerted as to how hard the driver in front of them was pressing on their brakes. This has yet to be implemented into mainstream Europe or America. [ citation needed ]

Airbags were very first installed in production vehicles in the 1980s as standard equipment instead of an option as was done in the mid 1970s (such as the Oldsmobile Toronado in one thousand nine hundred seventy four [47] [52] [53] ). In 1981, airbags were an available option on the Mercedes-Benz W126 (S-Class). In 1987, the Porsche nine hundred forty four Turbo became the very first car to have driver and passenger airbags as standard equipment, and airbags were suggested as an available option on the nine hundred forty four and 944S. The very first airbag was also installed in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend, in 1987. [54] In 1988, Chrysler was the very first United States company to install standard driver’s side air bags, in six of its passenger models. [55] In 1989, Chrysler became the very first U.S. auto manufacturer to install driver-side air bags in all its domestic-built automobiles. [56]

1990s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred ninety five the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) began frontal offset crash tests. [ citation needed ] Also in the same year, Volvo introduced the world’s very first car with side airbags: the 850.

In one thousand nine hundred ninety seven EuroNCAP was founded.

2000s Edit

In two thousand the NHTSA released a regulation making trunk releases mandatory for fresh cars by September of the following year due, in part, to the lobbying efforts of Janette Fennell. [57]

In two thousand three the IIHS began conducting side influence crash tests. In two thousand four NHTSA released fresh tests designed to test the rollover risk of fresh cars and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX-8 got a 5-star rating. [ citation needed ]

In two thousand nine Citroën became the very first manufacturer to feature “Snowmotion”, an Intelligent Anti Skid system developed in conjunction with Bosch, which gives drivers a level of control in extreme ice or snow conditions similar to a 4×4 [58]

In two thousand nine NHTSA upgraded its roof-crush standard for vehicles weighing six thousand pounds or less. The fresh standard enlargened the crush fountain requirement from 1.Five to three times the vehicle’s curb weight. [59] [60]

2010s Edit

Beginning in 2012, all cars under Ten,000 lbs. sold in the USA are required to have Electronic Stability Control. [61]

In 2015, recognizing that safer roads are a collective responsibility, Together for Safer Roads (TSR) was formally launched to align the private sector’s road safety efforts with the United Nations Decade of Activity for Road Safety. [Five]

Despite technological advances, about 34,000 people die every year in the U.S. [62] Albeit the fatality rates per vehicle registered and per vehicle distance travelled have steadily decreased since the advent of significant vehicle and driver regulation, the raw number of fatalities generally increases as a function of rising population and more vehicles on the road. However, acute rises in the price of fuel and related driver behavioural switches are reducing 2007-8 highway fatalities in the U.S. to below the one thousand nine hundred sixty one fatality count. [63] Litigation has been central in the fight to mandate safer cars. [64]

In 1996, the U.S. had about two deaths per Ten,000 motor vehicles, compared to 1.9 in Germany, Two.6 in France, and 1.Five in the UK. [65] In 1998, there were Three,421 fatal crashes in the UK, the fewest since 1926; [66] in two thousand ten this number was further diminished to 1,857 and was attributed to the 2009–2010 scrappage scheme. [67]

The sizable traffic safety lead liked by the USA since the 1960s had narrowed significantly by 2002, with the US improvement percentages lagging in 16th place behind those of Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, United Kingdom, Iceland, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Fresh Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland in terms of deaths per thousand vehicles, while in terms of deaths per one hundred million vehicle miles travelled, the USA had dropped from very first place to tenth place. [68]

Government-collected data, such as that from the U.S. Fatality Analysis Reporting System, demonstrate other countries achieving safety spectacle improvements over time greater than those achieved in the U.S.: [68]

Research on the trends in use of powerful vehicles indicate that a significant difference inbetween the U.S. and other countries is the relatively high prevalence of pickup trucks and SUVs in the U.S. A two thousand three examine by the U.S. Transportation Research Board found that SUVs and pickup trucks are significantly less safe than passenger cars, that imported-brand vehicles tend to be safer than American-brand vehicles, and that the size and weight of a vehicle has a significantly smaller effect on safety than the quality of the vehicle’s engineering. [Sixty nine] The level of large commercial truck traffic has substantially enhanced since the 1960s, while highway capacity has not kept rhythm with the increase in large commercial truck traffic on U.S. highways. [70] [71] However, other factors exert significant influence; Canada has lower roadway death and injury rates despite a vehicle mix comparable to that of the U.S. [68] Nevertheless, the widespread use of truck-based vehicles as passenger carriers is correlated with roadway deaths and injuries not only directly by dint of vehicular safety spectacle per se, but also indirectly through the relatively low fuel costs that facilitate the use of such vehicles in North America; motor vehicle fatalities decline as fuel prices increase. [63] [72]

NHTSA has issued relatively few regulations since the mid-1980s; most of the vehicle-based reduction in vehicle fatality rates in the U.S. during the last third of the 20th Century were gained by the initial NHTSA safety standards issued from one thousand nine hundred sixty eight to one thousand nine hundred eighty four and subsequent voluntary switches in vehicle design and construction by vehicle manufacturers. [73]

Pregnant women Edit

When pregnant, women should proceed to use seatbelts and airbags decently. A University of Michigan examine found that “unrestrained or improperly restrained pregnant women are Five.7 times more likely to have an adverse fetal outcome than decently restrained pregnant women”. [74] If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions are available from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier. [ citation needed ]

Infants and children Edit

Children present significant challenges in engineering and producing safe vehicles, because most children are significantly smaller and lighter than most adults. Additionally, children far from being just scaled down adults, still have an undeveloped skeletal system. This means that vehicle restraint systems such as airbags and seat belts, far from being effective, are hazardous if used to restrain youthful children. In recognition of this, many medical professionals and jurisdictions recommend or require that children under a particular age, height, and/or weight [ which? ] rail in a child seat and/or in the back seat, as applicable. [ citation needed ]

Within Europe ECE Regulation R44 dictates that children below one hundred fifty cm must travel in a child restraint that is suitable for their weight. Each country have their own adaptions of this Regulation. For example, in the United Kingdom, children must travel in a child restraint until they are one hundred thirty five cm tall or reach twelve years of age, which ever comes soonest. As another example in Austria the driver of passenger vehicles is responsible for people shorter than one hundred fifty cm and below fourteen years to be seated in an adequate child safety seat. Moreover, it is not permitted for children below the age of three to rail in a passenger vehicle without “security system” (which in practice means the vehicle is not tooled with any seat belts or technical systems like Isofix), whereas children inbetween three and fourteen years have to rail in the back seat. [75]

Sweden specify that a child or an adult shorter than one hundred forty cm is legally barred to rail in a place with an active airbag in front of it. [ citation needed ]

The majority of medical professionals and biomechanical engineers agree that children below the age of two year old are much safer if they travel in a rearward facing child restraint. [76]

Child safety locks and driver-controlled power window lockout controls prevent children from opening doors and windows from inwards the vehicle. [ citation needed ]

Infants left in cars

Very youthfull children can perish from warmth or cold if left unattended in a parked car, whether deliberately or through absentmindedness. [77] In two thousand four the U.S. NHTSA estimated twenty five fatalities per year among children left in hot cars. [78]

Teenage drivers Edit

In the UK, a total driving licence can be had at age 17, and most areas in the United States will issue a utter driver’s license at the age of 16, and all within a range inbetween fourteen and Eighteen. [79] In addition to being relatively inexperienced, teenage drivers are also cognitively immature, compared to other drivers. [80] This combination leads to a relatively high crash rate among this demographic. [81]

In some areas, fresh drivers’ vehicles must bear a warning sign to alert other drivers that the vehicle is being driven by an inexperienced and learning driver, providing them chance to be more cautious and to encourage other drivers to give novices more leeway. [82] In the U.S. Fresh Jersey has Kyleigh’s Law citing that teenage drivers must have a decal on their vehicle. [83]

Some countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and Fresh Zealand, have graduated levels of driver’s licence, with special rules. [84] By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver’s licence for drivers under age Eighteen. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by fresh drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by fresh drivers (less than one year in practice) is twenty km/h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states permit 18-year-olds to skip some requirements that junior drivers would face, which statistics showcase may be causing higher crash rates among fresh drivers. Fresh Jersey has the same requirements for fresh drivers up to the age of 21, which may obviate this problem. [85]

Elderly Edit

Insurance statistics in the United States indicate a 30% increase in the number of elderly killed, comparing one thousand nine hundred seventy five to 2000. [86] Several states require extra testing for elderly drivers. On a per-driver basis, the number of fatal and overall crashes decreases with age, with some exceptions for drivers over 75. [87] The overall trend may be due to greater practice and avoiding driving in adverse conditions. [86] However, on a per-miles-travelled basis, [88] drivers junior than 25-30 and older than 65-70 have significantly higher crash rates. Survivability of crashes decreases monotonically with the age of the victim. [88]

A common problem for the elderly is the question of when a medical condition or biological aging presents a serious enough problem that one should stop driving. In some cases, this means providing up some private independence, but in urban areas often means relying more on public transportation. Many transit systems suggest discounted fares to seniors, and some local governments run “senior shuttles” specifically targeted at this demographic. [ citation needed ]

Automobile safety

Automobile safety

Automobile safety is the investigate and practice of design, construction, equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of traffic collisions. Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design.

One of the very first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory of Buffalo, Fresh York. The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards. [1] However, the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim, the pedestrian. [ citation needed ]

In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every eight minutes, and are 1.Five times more likely than a vehicle’s occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing. [Two]

Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily diminished injury and death rates in all very first world countries. Nevertheless, auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths, an estimated total of 1.Two million in 2004, or 25% of the total from all causes. Of those killed by autos, almost two-thirds are pedestrians. [Three] Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices, regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives. [Four]

Coalitions to promote road and automobile safety, such as Together for Safer Roads (TSR), brings together global private sector companies, across industries, to collaborate on improving road safety. TSR brings together members’ skill, data, technology, and global networks to concentrate on five road safety areas that will make the greatest influence globally and within local communities. [Five]

The rising trend of Autonomous Things is largely driven by the stir towards the Autonomous car, that both addresses the main existing safety issues and creates fresh issues. The autonomous car is expected to be much safer than existing vehicles, by eliminating the single most dangerous element – the driver. The Center for Internet and Society at Stanford Law School claims that “Some ninety percent of motor vehicle crashes are caused at least in part by human error”. [6] But while safety standards like the ISO twenty six thousand two hundred sixty two specify the required safety, it is still a cargo on the industry to demonstrate acceptable safety.

Contents

Work-related roadway crashes are the leading cause of death from traumatic injuries in the U.S. workplace. They accounted for almost 12,000 deaths inbetween one thousand nine hundred ninety two and 2000. Deaths and injuries from these roadway crashes result in enhanced costs to employers and lost productivity in addition to their toll in human suffering. [7] Truck drivers tend to suffer higher fatality rates than workers in other occupations, but concerns about motor vehicle safety in the workplace are not limited to those surrounding the operation of large trucks. Workers outside the motor carrier industry routinely operate company-owned vehicles for deliveries, sales and repair calls, client visits etc. In these instances, the employer providing the vehicle generally plays a major role in setting safety, maintenance, and training policy. [7] As in non-occupational driving, youthful drivers are especially at risk. In the workplace, 45% of all fatal injuries to workers under age eighteen inbetween one thousand nine hundred ninety two and two thousand in the United States resulted from transportation incidents. [8]

The terms “active” and “passive” are elementary but significant terms in the world of automotive safety. “Active safety” is used to refer to technology assisting in the prevention of a crash and “passive safety” to components of the vehicle (primarily airbags, seatbelts and the physical structure of the vehicle) that help to protect occupants during a crash. [9] [Ten]

Crash avoidance Edit

Crash avoidance systems and devices help the driver — and, increasingly, help the vehicle itself — to avoid a collision. This category includes:

Driver assistance Edit

A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems, which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle. Driver assistance systems include:

• DADS [permanent dead link] :’ DADS : Driver Alertness Detection System[11] System to prevent crashes caused by tiredness
• Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision.
• Infrared night vision systems to increase witnessing distance beyond headlamp range
• Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight planks to light the driver’s way through kinks and maximize watching distance without partially dazzling other drivers
• Switch roles backup sensors, which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing
• Backup camera
• Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front
• Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel
• Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems
• Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin
• Electronic Stability Control, which intervenes to avert an emerging loss of control
• Anti-lock braking systems
• Electronic brakeforce distribution systems
• Emergency brake assist systems
• Cornering Brake Control systems
• Assured Clear Distance Ahead measurement and speed governance systems
• Precrash system
• Automated parking system
• Obstacle detection sensor systems notify a driver how close their vehicle is to an object – usually providing a distance measurement, to the inch, as to how close they are.

Crashworthiness Edit

Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening. Much research is carried out using anthropomorphic crash test dummies.

• Seatbelts limit the forward maneuverability of an occupant, spread to absorb energy, to lengthen the time of the occupant’s negative acceleration in a crash, reducing the loading on the occupants bod. They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags.
• Airbags inflate to cushion the influence of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicle’s interior. The most significant being the prevention of direct influence of the driver’s head with the steering wheel and door pile.
• Laminated windshields remain in one lump when impacted, preventing invasion of unbelted occupants’ goes and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car instantaneously following a collision. It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell. Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally acute edges, rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does.
• Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision, displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the negative acceleration influence force on the vehicle occupants. Vehicles will include a front, rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too.
• Safety Cell – the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials, at places subject to high explosions in a crash, in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants.
• Side influence protection planks, also called anti-intrusion bars.
• Collapsible universally jointed steering columns, along with steering wheel airbag. The steering system is mounted behind the front axle – behind and protected by, the front crumple zone. This reduces the risk and severity of driver influence or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash.
• Pedestrian protection systems.
• Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts, on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash, and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas.
• Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier inbetween passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs, station wagons and vans. These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo. They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover.

Post-crash survivability Edit

Post-crash survivability is the chance that drivers and passengers get through a crash after it occurs. Technology such as Advanced Automatic Collision Notification can automatically place calls to emergency services and send information about a vehicle collision.

Pedestrian safety Edit

Automobiles are much more dangerous to pedestrians than they are to drivers and passengers. Two-thirds of 1.Trio million yearly auto related deaths are pedestrians. [1] Since at least the early 1970s, attention has also been given to vehicle design regarding the safety of pedestrians in car-pedestrian collisions. Proposals in Europe would require cars sold there to have a minimum/maximum spandex hood (bonnet) height. [12] From two thousand six the use of “bull bars”, a style on 4x4s and SUVs, became illegal in the European Union, after having been banned on all fresh cars in 2002. [13]

Conspicuity Edit

Lights and reflectors Edit

Vehicles are tooled with a multitude of lights and reflectors to mark their presence, position, width, length, and direction of travel as well as to convey the driver’s intent and deeds to other drivers. These include the vehicle’s headlamps, front and rear position lamps, side marker lights and reflectors, turn signals, stop (brake) lamps, and reversing lamps. School buses and Semi-trailer trucks in North America are required to bear retroreflective strips outlining their side and rear perimeters for greater conspicuity at night. [14]

Daytime running lamps have been required in Nordic countries since the mid-1970s, in Canada since 1990, and via the European Union since seven February 2011. [15] [16]

Vehicle colour Edit

A two thousand four essay on the relation inbetween car colour and safety stated that no previous studies had been scientifically conclusive. [17] Since then, a Swedish examine found that pink cars are involved in the fewest and black cars are involved in the most crashes (Land transport NZ 2005). In Auckland Fresh Zealand, a explore found that there was a significantly lower rate of serious injury in silver cars, with higher rates in brown, black, and green cars. The Vehicle Colour Investigate, conducted by Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC) and published in 2007, analysed 855,258 crashes that occurring inbetween one thousand nine hundred eighty seven and two thousand four in the Australian states of Victoria and Western Australia that resulted in injury or in a vehicle being towed away. [Eighteen] The probe analysed risk by light condition. It found that in daylight black cars were 12% more likely than white to be involved in a collision, followed by grey cars at 11%, silver cars at 10%, and crimson and blue cars at 7%, with no other colours found to be significantly more or less risky than white. At dawn or dusk the risk ratio for black cars hopped to 47% more likely than white, and that for silver cars to 15%. In the hours of darkness only crimson and silver cars were found to be significantly more risky than white, by 10% and 8% respectively. [ citation needed ]

Unused safety features Edit

Many different inventions and ideas which may or may not have been practical about auto safety have been put forward but never made it to a production car. Such items include the driver seat in the middle (to give the person a better view) [Nineteen] (the exception being the Mclaren F1 sports car), rear-facing seats (except for infant car seats), and control stick steering. [ citation needed ]

18th century–19th century Edit

Automobile safety may have become an issue almost from the beginning of mechanised road vehicle development. The 2nd steam-powered “Fardier” (artillery tractor), created by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1771, is reported by some to have crashed into a wall during its demonstration run. However, according to Georges Ageon, [20] the earliest mention of this occurrence dates from one thousand eight hundred one and it does not feature in contemporary accounts. One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31, one thousand eight hundred sixty nine in Parsonstown, Ireland. [21]

1920s Edit

In 1922, the Duesenburg Model A became the very first car to have four-wheel hydraulic brakes. [22]

1930s Edit

In 1930, safety glass became standard on all Ford cars. [23] In the 1930s, plastic surgeon Claire L. Straith and physician C. J. Strickland advocated the use of seat belts and padded dashboards. Strickland founded the Automobile Safety League of America. [24] [25]

In 1934, GM performed the very first barrier crash test. [26]

In 1936, the Hudson Terraplane came with the very first back-up brake system. Should the hydraulic brakes fail, the brake pedal would activate a set of mechanical brakes for the back wheels. [27] [28]

In 1937, Chrysler, Plymouth, DeSoto, and Dodge added such items as a vapid, slick dash with recessed controls, rounded door treats, a windshield wiper control made of rubber, and the back of the front seat powerfully padded to provide protection for rear passengers. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34]

1940s Edit

In 1942, Hugh DeHaven published the classic Mechanical analysis of survival in falls from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet. [35]

In one thousand nine hundred forty seven the American Tucker was built with the world’s very first padded dashboard. It also came with middle headlight that turned with the steering wheel, a front steel bulkhead, and a front safety chamber. [36]

In one thousand nine hundred forty nine SAAB incorporated aircraft safety thinking into automobiles making the Saab ninety two the very first production SAAB car with a safety cell. [37]

Also in 1949, the Chrysler Crown Imperial was the very first car to come with standard disc brakes. [38] [39]

1950s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred fifty five a USAF surgeon who advised the US Surgeon General wrote an article on how to make cars safer for those railing in it. Aside from the usual safety features, such as seat belts and padded dash boards, bumper shocks were introduced. [40]

In 1956, Ford attempted unsuccessfully to interest Americans in purchasing safer cars with their Lifeguard safety package. (Its attempt nevertheless earns Ford Motor Trend ‘ s “Car of the Year” award for 1956.) [41]

In 1958, the United Nations established the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations, an international standards bod advancing auto safety. Many of the most life saving safety innovations, like seat belts and roll cell construction were brought to market under its auspices. That same year, Volvo engineer Nils Bohlin invented and patented the three-point lap and shoulder seat belt, which became standard equipment on all Volvo cars in 1959. [42] Over the next several decades, three-point safety belts were step by step mandated in all vehicles by regulators across the industrialised world. [ citation needed ]

In 1959, American Motors Corporation suggested the very first optional head rests for the front seat. [43] Also in 1959, the Cadillac Cyclone concept by Harley Earl had “a radar-based crash-avoidance system” located in the on the nose cones of the vehicle that would make audible and visual signals to the driver if there were obstacles in the vehicles path. [44]

1960s Edit

Effective on fresh passenger cars sold in the United States after January 1, 1964. front outboard lap belts were required. [ citation needed ]

On September 9, 1966, the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act became law in the U.S., the very first mandatory federal safety standards for motor vehicles. [45]

Effective in 1966, US-market passenger cars were required to be tooled with padded instrument panels, front and rear outboard lap belts, and white switch roles (backup) lamps. [ citation needed ]

In 1966, the U.S. established the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) with automobile safety as one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was reliant on the DOT for administration and funding. However, in one thousand nine hundred seventy five the organization was made entirely independent by the Independent Safety Board Act (in P.L. 93-633; forty nine U.S.C. 1901). [ citation needed ]

In 1967, equipment specifications by such major fleet purchasers as the City and County of Los Angeles, California encouraged the voluntary installation in most fresh cars sold in the US of safety devices, systems, and design features including: [ citation needed ]

• Elimination of protruding knobs and controls in passenger compartment
• Extra padding on the instrument panel and other interior surfaces
• Mounting points for front outboard shoulder belts
• Four-way hazard flashers
• A uniform P-R-N-D-L gear sequence for automatic transmission gear selectors
• Dual-circuit brake hydraulic systems

In 1968, the precursor agency to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s very first Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards took effect. These required shoulder belts for left and right front-seat vehicle occupants, side marker lights, collapsible steering columns, and other safety features. One thousand nine hundred sixty nine eyed the addition of head restraints for front outboard passengers, addressing the problem of whiplash in rear-end collisions. These safety requirements did not apply to vehicles classified as “commercial,” such as light-duty pickup trucks. Thus manufacturers did not always include such hardware in these vehicles, even tho’ many did passenger-car duty. [ citation needed ]

Volvo developed the very first rear-facing child seat in one thousand nine hundred sixty four and introduced its own booster seat in 1978. [46]

1970s Edit

In 1974, GM suggested driver and passenger airbags as optional equipment on large Cadillacs, Buicks, and Oldsmobiles. [47]

In one thousand nine hundred seventy nine NHTSA began crash-testing popular cars and publishing the results, to inform consumers and encourage manufacturers to improve the safety of their vehicles. Primarily, the US NCAP (Fresh Car Assessment Program) crash tests examined compliance with the occupant-protection provisions of FMVSS 208. Over the subsequent years, this NHTSA program was step by step expanded in scope. In 1997, the European Fresh Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) was established to test fresh vehicles’ safety spectacle and publish the results for vehicle shoppers’ information. [48] The NHTSA crash tests are presently operated and published as the U.S. branch of the international NCAP programme. [49]

1980s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred eighty four Fresh York State passed the very first U.S. law requiring seat belt use in passenger cars. Seat belt laws have since been adopted by forty nine states (Fresh Hampshire has not). [50] NHTSA estimates the resulting enlargened seat belt use saves Ten,000 per year in the United States. [51]

In one thousand nine hundred eighty six the central 3rd brake light was mandated in North America with most of the world following with similar standards in automotive lighting. [ citation needed ]

In 1989, companies in Israel implemented Advanced Brake Warning systems, where the driver would be alerted as to how hard the driver in front of them was pressing on their brakes. This has yet to be implemented into mainstream Europe or America. [ citation needed ]

Airbags were very first installed in production vehicles in the 1980s as standard equipment instead of an option as was done in the mid 1970s (such as the Oldsmobile Toronado in one thousand nine hundred seventy four [47] [52] [53] ). In 1981, airbags were an available option on the Mercedes-Benz W126 (S-Class). In 1987, the Porsche nine hundred forty four Turbo became the very first car to have driver and passenger airbags as standard equipment, and airbags were suggested as an available option on the nine hundred forty four and 944S. The very first airbag was also installed in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend, in 1987. [54] In 1988, Chrysler was the very first United States company to install standard driver’s side air bags, in six of its passenger models. [55] In 1989, Chrysler became the very first U.S. auto manufacturer to install driver-side air bags in all its domestic-built automobiles. [56]

1990s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred ninety five the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) began frontal offset crash tests. [ citation needed ] Also in the same year, Volvo introduced the world’s very first car with side airbags: the 850.

In one thousand nine hundred ninety seven EuroNCAP was founded.

2000s Edit

In two thousand the NHTSA released a regulation making trunk releases mandatory for fresh cars by September of the following year due, in part, to the lobbying efforts of Janette Fennell. [57]

In two thousand three the IIHS began conducting side influence crash tests. In two thousand four NHTSA released fresh tests designed to test the rollover risk of fresh cars and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX-8 got a 5-star rating. [ citation needed ]

In two thousand nine Citroën became the very first manufacturer to feature “Snowmotion”, an Intelligent Anti Skid system developed in conjunction with Bosch, which gives drivers a level of control in extreme ice or snow conditions similar to a 4×4 [58]

In two thousand nine NHTSA upgraded its roof-crush standard for vehicles weighing six thousand pounds or less. The fresh standard enlargened the crush fountain requirement from 1.Five to three times the vehicle’s curb weight. [59] [60]

2010s Edit

Kicking off in 2012, all cars under Ten,000 lbs. sold in the USA are required to have Electronic Stability Control. [61]

In 2015, recognizing that safer roads are a collective responsibility, Together for Safer Roads (TSR) was formally launched to align the private sector’s road safety efforts with the United Nations Decade of Activity for Road Safety. [Five]

Despite technological advances, about 34,000 people die every year in the U.S. [62] Albeit the fatality rates per vehicle registered and per vehicle distance travelled have steadily decreased since the advent of significant vehicle and driver regulation, the raw number of fatalities generally increases as a function of rising population and more vehicles on the road. However, acute rises in the price of fuel and related driver behavioural switches are reducing 2007-8 highway fatalities in the U.S. to below the one thousand nine hundred sixty one fatality count. [63] Litigation has been central in the fight to mandate safer cars. [64]

In 1996, the U.S. had about two deaths per Ten,000 motor vehicles, compared to 1.9 in Germany, Two.6 in France, and 1.Five in the UK. [65] In 1998, there were Three,421 fatal crashes in the UK, the fewest since 1926; [66] in two thousand ten this number was further diminished to 1,857 and was attributed to the 2009–2010 scrappage scheme. [67]

The sizable traffic safety lead liked by the USA since the 1960s had narrowed significantly by 2002, with the US improvement percentages lagging in 16th place behind those of Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, United Kingdom, Iceland, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Fresh Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland in terms of deaths per thousand vehicles, while in terms of deaths per one hundred million vehicle miles travelled, the USA had dropped from very first place to tenth place. [68]

Government-collected data, such as that from the U.S. Fatality Analysis Reporting System, demonstrate other countries achieving safety spectacle improvements over time greater than those achieved in the U.S.: [68]

Research on the trends in use of strenuous vehicles indicate that a significant difference inbetween the U.S. and other countries is the relatively high prevalence of pickup trucks and SUVs in the U.S. A two thousand three explore by the U.S. Transportation Research Board found that SUVs and pickup trucks are significantly less safe than passenger cars, that imported-brand vehicles tend to be safer than American-brand vehicles, and that the size and weight of a vehicle has a significantly smaller effect on safety than the quality of the vehicle’s engineering. [Sixty nine] The level of large commercial truck traffic has substantially enhanced since the 1960s, while highway capacity has not kept tempo with the increase in large commercial truck traffic on U.S. highways. [70] [71] However, other factors exert significant influence; Canada has lower roadway death and injury rates despite a vehicle mix comparable to that of the U.S. [68] Nevertheless, the widespread use of truck-based vehicles as passenger carriers is correlated with roadway deaths and injuries not only directly by dint of vehicular safety spectacle per se, but also indirectly through the relatively low fuel costs that facilitate the use of such vehicles in North America; motor vehicle fatalities decline as fuel prices increase. [63] [72]

NHTSA has issued relatively few regulations since the mid-1980s; most of the vehicle-based reduction in vehicle fatality rates in the U.S. during the last third of the 20th Century were gained by the initial NHTSA safety standards issued from one thousand nine hundred sixty eight to one thousand nine hundred eighty four and subsequent voluntary switches in vehicle design and construction by vehicle manufacturers. [73]

Pregnant women Edit

When pregnant, women should proceed to use seatbelts and airbags decently. A University of Michigan probe found that “unrestrained or improperly restrained pregnant women are Five.7 times more likely to have an adverse fetal outcome than decently restrained pregnant women”. [74] If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions are available from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier. [ citation needed ]

Infants and children Edit

Children present significant challenges in engineering and producing safe vehicles, because most children are significantly smaller and lighter than most adults. Additionally, children far from being just scaled down adults, still have an undeveloped skeletal system. This means that vehicle restraint systems such as airbags and seat belts, far from being effective, are hazardous if used to restrain youthfull children. In recognition of this, many medical professionals and jurisdictions recommend or require that children under a particular age, height, and/or weight [ which? ] rail in a child seat and/or in the back seat, as applicable. [ citation needed ]

Within Europe ECE Regulation R44 dictates that children below one hundred fifty cm must travel in a child restraint that is suitable for their weight. Each country have their own adaptions of this Regulation. For example, in the United Kingdom, children must travel in a child restraint until they are one hundred thirty five cm tall or reach twelve years of age, which ever comes soonest. As another example in Austria the driver of passenger vehicles is responsible for people shorter than one hundred fifty cm and below fourteen years to be seated in an adequate child safety seat. Moreover, it is not permitted for children below the age of three to rail in a passenger vehicle without “security system” (which in practice means the vehicle is not tooled with any seat belts or technical systems like Isofix), whereas children inbetween three and fourteen years have to rail in the back seat. [75]

Sweden specify that a child or an adult shorter than one hundred forty cm is legally prohibited to rail in a place with an active airbag in front of it. [ citation needed ]

The majority of medical professionals and biomechanical engineers agree that children below the age of two year old are much safer if they travel in a rearward facing child restraint. [76]

Child safety locks and driver-controlled power window lockout controls prevent children from opening doors and windows from inwards the vehicle. [ citation needed ]

Infants left in cars

Very youthfull children can perish from warmth or cold if left unattended in a parked car, whether deliberately or through absentmindedness. [77] In two thousand four the U.S. NHTSA estimated twenty five fatalities per year among children left in hot cars. [78]

Teenage drivers Edit

In the UK, a utter driving licence can be had at age 17, and most areas in the United States will issue a total driver’s license at the age of 16, and all within a range inbetween fourteen and Legitimate. [79] In addition to being relatively inexperienced, teenage drivers are also cognitively immature, compared to other drivers. [80] This combination leads to a relatively high crash rate among this demographic. [81]

In some areas, fresh drivers’ vehicles must bear a warning sign to alert other drivers that the vehicle is being driven by an inexperienced and learning driver, providing them chance to be more cautious and to encourage other drivers to give novices more leeway. [82] In the U.S. Fresh Jersey has Kyleigh’s Law citing that teenage drivers must have a decal on their vehicle. [83]

Some countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and Fresh Zealand, have graduated levels of driver’s licence, with special rules. [84] By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver’s licence for drivers under age Eighteen. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by fresh drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by fresh drivers (less than one year in practice) is twenty km/h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states permit 18-year-olds to skip some requirements that junior drivers would face, which statistics display may be causing higher crash rates among fresh drivers. Fresh Jersey has the same requirements for fresh drivers up to the age of 21, which may obviate this problem. [85]

Elderly Edit

Insurance statistics in the United States indicate a 30% increase in the number of elderly killed, comparing one thousand nine hundred seventy five to 2000. [86] Several states require extra testing for elderly drivers. On a per-driver basis, the number of fatal and overall crashes decreases with age, with some exceptions for drivers over 75. [87] The overall trend may be due to greater practice and avoiding driving in adverse conditions. [86] However, on a per-miles-travelled basis, [88] drivers junior than 25-30 and older than 65-70 have significantly higher crash rates. Survivability of crashes decreases monotonically with the age of the victim. [88]

A common problem for the elderly is the question of when a medical condition or biological aging presents a serious enough problem that one should stop driving. In some cases, this means providing up some private independence, but in urban areas often means relying more on public transportation. Many transit systems suggest discounted fares to seniors, and some local governments run “senior shuttles” specifically targeted at this demographic. [ citation needed ]

Automobile safety

Automobile safety

Automobile safety is the probe and practice of design, construction, equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of traffic collisions. Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design.

One of the very first formal academic studies into improving vehicle safety was by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory of Buffalo, Fresh York. The main conclusion of their extensive report is the crucial importance of seat belts and padded dashboards. [1] However, the primary vector of traffic-related deaths and injuries is the disproportionate mass and velocity of an automobile compared to that of the predominant victim, the pedestrian. [ citation needed ]

In the United States a pedestrian is injured by an automobile every eight minutes, and are 1.Five times more likely than a vehicle’s occupants to be killed in an automobile crash per outing. [Two]

Improvements in roadway and automobile designs have steadily diminished injury and death rates in all very first world countries. Nevertheless, auto collisions are the leading cause of injury-related deaths, an estimated total of 1.Two million in 2004, or 25% of the total from all causes. Of those killed by autos, almost two-thirds are pedestrians. [Trio] Risk compensation theory has been used in arguments against safety devices, regulations and modifications of vehicles despite the efficacy of saving lives. [Four]

Coalitions to promote road and automobile safety, such as Together for Safer Roads (TSR), brings together global private sector companies, across industries, to collaborate on improving road safety. TSR brings together members’ skill, data, technology, and global networks to concentrate on five road safety areas that will make the greatest influence globally and within local communities. [Five]

The rising trend of Autonomous Things is largely driven by the stir towards the Autonomous car, that both addresses the main existing safety issues and creates fresh issues. The autonomous car is expected to be much safer than existing vehicles, by eliminating the single most dangerous element – the driver. The Center for Internet and Society at Stanford Law School claims that “Some ninety percent of motor vehicle crashes are caused at least in part by human error”. [6] But while safety standards like the ISO twenty six thousand two hundred sixty two specify the required safety, it is still a cargo on the industry to demonstrate acceptable safety.

Contents

Work-related roadway crashes are the leading cause of death from traumatic injuries in the U.S. workplace. They accounted for almost 12,000 deaths inbetween one thousand nine hundred ninety two and 2000. Deaths and injuries from these roadway crashes result in enlargened costs to employers and lost productivity in addition to their toll in human suffering. [7] Truck drivers tend to suffer higher fatality rates than workers in other occupations, but concerns about motor vehicle safety in the workplace are not limited to those surrounding the operation of large trucks. Workers outside the motor carrier industry routinely operate company-owned vehicles for deliveries, sales and repair calls, client visits etc. In these instances, the employer providing the vehicle generally plays a major role in setting safety, maintenance, and training policy. [7] As in non-occupational driving, youthful drivers are especially at risk. In the workplace, 45% of all fatal injuries to workers under age eighteen inbetween one thousand nine hundred ninety two and two thousand in the United States resulted from transportation incidents. [8]

The terms “active” and “passive” are plain but significant terms in the world of automotive safety. “Active safety” is used to refer to technology assisting in the prevention of a crash and “passive safety” to components of the vehicle (primarily airbags, seatbelts and the physical structure of the vehicle) that help to protect occupants during a crash. [9] [Ten]

Crash avoidance Edit

Crash avoidance systems and devices help the driver — and, increasingly, help the vehicle itself — to avoid a collision. This category includes:

Driver assistance Edit

A subset of crash avoidance is driver assistance systems, which help the driver to detect obstacles and to control the vehicle. Driver assistance systems include:

• DADS [permanent dead link] :’ DADS : Driver Alertness Detection System[11] System to prevent crashes caused by exhaustion
• Automatic Braking systems to prevent or reduce the severity of collision.
• Infrared night vision systems to increase eyeing distance beyond headlamp range
• Adaptive headlamps control the direction and range of the headlight planks to light the driver’s way through forms and maximize eyeing distance without partially dazzling other drivers
• Switch roles backup sensors, which alert drivers to difficult-to-see objects in their path when reversing
• Backup camera
• Adaptive cruise control which maintains a safe distance from the vehicle in front
• Lane departure warning systems to alert the driver of an unintended departure from the intended lane of travel
• Tire pressure monitoring systems or Deflation Detection Systems
• Traction control systems which restore traction if driven wheels begin to spin
• Electronic Stability Control, which intervenes to avert an emerging loss of control
• Anti-lock braking systems
• Electronic brakeforce distribution systems
• Emergency brake assist systems
• Cornering Brake Control systems
• Assured Clear Distance Ahead measurement and speed governance systems
• Precrash system
• Automated parking system
• Obstacle detection sensor systems notify a driver how close their vehicle is to an object – usually providing a distance measurement, to the inch, as to how close they are.

Crashworthiness Edit

Crashworthy systems and devices prevent or reduce the severity of injuries when a crash is imminent or actually happening. Much research is carried out using anthropomorphic crash test dummies.

• Seatbelts limit the forward movability of an occupant, open up to absorb energy, to lengthen the time of the occupant’s negative acceleration in a crash, reducing the loading on the occupants assets. They prevent occupants being ejected from the vehicle and ensure that they are in the correct position for the operation of the airbags.
• Airbags inflate to cushion the influence of a vehicle occupant with various parts of the vehicle’s interior. The most significant being the prevention of direct influence of the driver’s head with the steering wheel and door pole.
• Laminated windshields remain in one lump when impacted, preventing invasion of unbelted occupants’ goes and maintaining a minimal but adequate transparency for control of the car instantly following a collision. It is also a bonded structural part of the safety cell. Tempered glass side and rear windows break into granules with minimally acute edges, rather than splintering into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does.
• Crumple zones absorb and dissipate the force of a collision, displacing and diverting it away from the passenger compartment and reducing the negative acceleration influence force on the vehicle occupants. Vehicles will include a front, rear and maybe side crumple zones (like Volvo SIPS) too.
• Safety Cell – the passenger compartment is reinforced with high strength materials, at places subject to high explosions in a crash, in order to maintain a survival space for the vehicle occupants.
• Side influence protection planks, also called anti-intrusion bars.
• Collapsible universally jointed steering columns, along with steering wheel airbag. The steering system is mounted behind the front axle – behind and protected by, the front crumple zone. This reduces the risk and severity of driver influence or even impalement on the column in a frontal crash.
• Pedestrian protection systems.
• Padding of the instrument panel and other interior parts, on the vehicle in areas likely to be struck by the occupants during a crash, and the careful placement of mounting brackets away from those areas.
• Cargo barriers are sometimes fitted to provide a physical barrier inbetween passenger and cargo compartments in vehicles such as SUVs, station wagons and vans. These help prevent injuries caused by occupants being struck by unsecured cargo. They can also help prevent collapse of the roof in the event of a vehicle rollover.

Post-crash survivability Edit

Post-crash survivability is the chance that drivers and passengers get through a crash after it occurs. Technology such as Advanced Automatic Collision Notification can automatically place calls to emergency services and send information about a vehicle collision.

Pedestrian safety Edit

Automobiles are much more dangerous to pedestrians than they are to drivers and passengers. Two-thirds of 1.Trio million yearly auto related deaths are pedestrians. [1] Since at least the early 1970s, attention has also been given to vehicle design regarding the safety of pedestrians in car-pedestrian collisions. Proposals in Europe would require cars sold there to have a minimum/maximum bondage mask (bonnet) height. [12] From two thousand six the use of “bull bars”, a style on 4x4s and SUVs, became illegal in the European Union, after having been banned on all fresh cars in 2002. [13]

Conspicuity Edit

Lights and reflectors Edit

Vehicles are tooled with a multitude of lights and reflectors to mark their presence, position, width, length, and direction of travel as well as to convey the driver’s intent and deeds to other drivers. These include the vehicle’s headlamps, front and rear position lamps, side marker lights and reflectors, turn signals, stop (brake) lamps, and reversing lamps. School buses and Semi-trailer trucks in North America are required to bear retroreflective strips outlining their side and rear perimeters for greater conspicuity at night. [14]

Daytime running lamps have been required in Nordic countries since the mid-1970s, in Canada since 1990, and via the European Union since seven February 2011. [15] [16]

Vehicle colour Edit

A two thousand four essay on the relation inbetween car colour and safety stated that no previous studies had been scientifically conclusive. [17] Since then, a Swedish investigate found that pink cars are involved in the fewest and black cars are involved in the most crashes (Land transport NZ 2005). In Auckland Fresh Zealand, a probe found that there was a significantly lower rate of serious injury in silver cars, with higher rates in brown, black, and green cars. The Vehicle Colour Examine, conducted by Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC) and published in 2007, analysed 855,258 crashes that occurring inbetween one thousand nine hundred eighty seven and two thousand four in the Australian states of Victoria and Western Australia that resulted in injury or in a vehicle being towed away. [Legal] The explore analysed risk by light condition. It found that in daylight black cars were 12% more likely than white to be involved in a collision, followed by grey cars at 11%, silver cars at 10%, and crimson and blue cars at 7%, with no other colours found to be significantly more or less risky than white. At dawn or dusk the risk ratio for black cars leaped to 47% more likely than white, and that for silver cars to 15%. In the hours of darkness only crimson and silver cars were found to be significantly more risky than white, by 10% and 8% respectively. [ citation needed ]

Unused safety features Edit

Many different inventions and ideas which may or may not have been practical about auto safety have been put forward but never made it to a production car. Such items include the driver seat in the middle (to give the person a better view) [Nineteen] (the exception being the Mclaren F1 sports car), rear-facing seats (except for infant car seats), and control stick steering. [ citation needed ]

18th century–19th century Edit

Automobile safety may have become an issue almost from the beginning of mechanised road vehicle development. The 2nd steam-powered “Fardier” (artillery tractor), created by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot in 1771, is reported by some to have crashed into a wall during its demonstration run. However, according to Georges Ageon, [20] the earliest mention of this occurrence dates from one thousand eight hundred one and it does not feature in contemporary accounts. One of the earliest recorded automobile fatalities was Mary Ward, on August 31, one thousand eight hundred sixty nine in Parsonstown, Ireland. [21]

1920s Edit

In 1922, the Duesenburg Model A became the very first car to have four-wheel hydraulic brakes. [22]

1930s Edit

In 1930, safety glass became standard on all Ford cars. [23] In the 1930s, plastic surgeon Claire L. Straith and physician C. J. Strickland advocated the use of seat belts and padded dashboards. Strickland founded the Automobile Safety League of America. [24] [25]

In 1934, GM performed the very first barrier crash test. [26]

In 1936, the Hudson Terraplane came with the very first back-up brake system. Should the hydraulic brakes fail, the brake pedal would activate a set of mechanical brakes for the back wheels. [27] [28]

In 1937, Chrysler, Plymouth, DeSoto, and Dodge added such items as a plane, sleek dash with recessed controls, rounded door treats, a windshield wiper control made of rubber, and the back of the front seat intensely padded to provide protection for rear passengers. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34]

1940s Edit

In 1942, Hugh DeHaven published the classic Mechanical analysis of survival in falls from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet. [35]

In one thousand nine hundred forty seven the American Tucker was built with the world’s very first padded dashboard. It also came with middle headlight that turned with the steering wheel, a front steel bulkhead, and a front safety chamber. [36]

In one thousand nine hundred forty nine SAAB incorporated aircraft safety thinking into automobiles making the Saab ninety two the very first production SAAB car with a safety box. [37]

Also in 1949, the Chrysler Crown Imperial was the very first car to come with standard disc brakes. [38] [39]

1950s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred fifty five a USAF surgeon who advised the US Surgeon General wrote an article on how to make cars safer for those railing in it. Aside from the usual safety features, such as seat belts and padded dash boards, bumper shocks were introduced. [40]

In 1956, Ford attempted unsuccessfully to interest Americans in purchasing safer cars with their Lifeguard safety package. (Its attempt nevertheless earns Ford Motor Trend ‘ s “Car of the Year” award for 1956.) [41]

In 1958, the United Nations established the World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations, an international standards assets advancing auto safety. Many of the most life saving safety innovations, like seat belts and roll cell construction were brought to market under its auspices. That same year, Volvo engineer Nils Bohlin invented and patented the three-point lap and shoulder seat belt, which became standard equipment on all Volvo cars in 1959. [42] Over the next several decades, three-point safety belts were step by step mandated in all vehicles by regulators via the industrialised world. [ citation needed ]

In 1959, American Motors Corporation suggested the very first optional head rests for the front seat. [43] Also in 1959, the Cadillac Cyclone concept by Harley Earl had “a radar-based crash-avoidance system” located in the on the nose cones of the vehicle that would make audible and visual signals to the driver if there were obstacles in the vehicles path. [44]

1960s Edit

Effective on fresh passenger cars sold in the United States after January 1, 1964. front outboard lap belts were required. [ citation needed ]

On September 9, 1966, the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act became law in the U.S., the very first mandatory federal safety standards for motor vehicles. [45]

Effective in 1966, US-market passenger cars were required to be tooled with padded instrument panels, front and rear outboard lap belts, and white switch sides (backup) lamps. [ citation needed ]

In 1966, the U.S. established the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) with automobile safety as one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was reliant on the DOT for administration and funding. However, in one thousand nine hundred seventy five the organization was made entirely independent by the Independent Safety Board Act (in P.L. 93-633; forty nine U.S.C. 1901). [ citation needed ]

In 1967, equipment specifications by such major fleet purchasers as the City and County of Los Angeles, California encouraged the voluntary installation in most fresh cars sold in the US of safety devices, systems, and design features including: [ citation needed ]

• Elimination of protruding knobs and controls in passenger compartment
• Extra padding on the instrument panel and other interior surfaces
• Mounting points for front outboard shoulder belts
• Four-way hazard flashers
• A uniform P-R-N-D-L gear sequence for automatic transmission gear selectors
• Dual-circuit brake hydraulic systems

In 1968, the precursor agency to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s very first Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards took effect. These required shoulder belts for left and right front-seat vehicle occupants, side marker lights, collapsible steering columns, and other safety features. One thousand nine hundred sixty nine spotted the addition of head restraints for front outboard passengers, addressing the problem of whiplash in rear-end collisions. These safety requirements did not apply to vehicles classified as “commercial,” such as light-duty pickup trucks. Thus manufacturers did not always include such hardware in these vehicles, even tho’ many did passenger-car duty. [ citation needed ]

Volvo developed the very first rear-facing child seat in one thousand nine hundred sixty four and introduced its own booster seat in 1978. [46]

1970s Edit

In 1974, GM suggested driver and passenger airbags as optional equipment on large Cadillacs, Buicks, and Oldsmobiles. [47]

In one thousand nine hundred seventy nine NHTSA began crash-testing popular cars and publishing the results, to inform consumers and encourage manufacturers to improve the safety of their vehicles. Originally, the US NCAP (Fresh Car Assessment Program) crash tests examined compliance with the occupant-protection provisions of FMVSS 208. Over the subsequent years, this NHTSA program was little by little expanded in scope. In 1997, the European Fresh Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) was established to test fresh vehicles’ safety spectacle and publish the results for vehicle shoppers’ information. [48] The NHTSA crash tests are presently operated and published as the U.S. branch of the international NCAP programme. [49]

1980s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred eighty four Fresh York State passed the very first U.S. law requiring seat belt use in passenger cars. Seat belt laws have since been adopted by forty nine states (Fresh Hampshire has not). [50] NHTSA estimates the resulting enhanced seat belt use saves Ten,000 per year in the United States. [51]

In one thousand nine hundred eighty six the central 3rd brake light was mandated in North America with most of the world following with similar standards in automotive lighting. [ citation needed ]

In 1989, companies in Israel implemented Advanced Brake Warning systems, where the driver would be alerted as to how hard the driver in front of them was pressing on their brakes. This has yet to be implemented into mainstream Europe or America. [ citation needed ]

Airbags were very first installed in production vehicles in the 1980s as standard equipment instead of an option as was done in the mid 1970s (such as the Oldsmobile Toronado in one thousand nine hundred seventy four [47] [52] [53] ). In 1981, airbags were an available option on the Mercedes-Benz W126 (S-Class). In 1987, the Porsche nine hundred forty four Turbo became the very first car to have driver and passenger airbags as standard equipment, and airbags were suggested as an available option on the nine hundred forty four and 944S. The very first airbag was also installed in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend, in 1987. [54] In 1988, Chrysler was the very first United States company to install standard driver’s side air bags, in six of its passenger models. [55] In 1989, Chrysler became the very first U.S. auto manufacturer to install driver-side air bags in all its domestic-built automobiles. [56]

1990s Edit

In one thousand nine hundred ninety five the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) began frontal offset crash tests. [ citation needed ] Also in the same year, Volvo introduced the world’s very first car with side airbags: the 850.

In one thousand nine hundred ninety seven EuroNCAP was founded.

2000s Edit

In two thousand the NHTSA released a regulation making trunk releases mandatory for fresh cars by September of the following year due, in part, to the lobbying efforts of Janette Fennell. [57]

In two thousand three the IIHS began conducting side influence crash tests. In two thousand four NHTSA released fresh tests designed to test the rollover risk of fresh cars and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX-8 got a 5-star rating. [ citation needed ]

In two thousand nine Citroën became the very first manufacturer to feature “Snowmotion”, an Intelligent Anti Skid system developed in conjunction with Bosch, which gives drivers a level of control in extreme ice or snow conditions similar to a 4×4 [58]

In two thousand nine NHTSA upgraded its roof-crush standard for vehicles weighing six thousand pounds or less. The fresh standard enlargened the crush flow requirement from 1.Five to three times the vehicle’s curb weight. [59] [60]

2010s Edit

Kicking off in 2012, all cars under Ten,000 lbs. sold in the USA are required to have Electronic Stability Control. [61]

In 2015, recognizing that safer roads are a collective responsibility, Together for Safer Roads (TSR) was formally launched to align the private sector’s road safety efforts with the United Nations Decade of Act for Road Safety. [Five]

Despite technological advances, about 34,000 people die every year in the U.S. [62] Albeit the fatality rates per vehicle registered and per vehicle distance travelled have steadily decreased since the advent of significant vehicle and driver regulation, the raw number of fatalities generally increases as a function of rising population and more vehicles on the road. However, acute rises in the price of fuel and related driver behavioural switches are reducing 2007-8 highway fatalities in the U.S. to below the one thousand nine hundred sixty one fatality count. [63] Litigation has been central in the fight to mandate safer cars. [64]

In 1996, the U.S. had about two deaths per Ten,000 motor vehicles, compared to 1.9 in Germany, Two.6 in France, and 1.Five in the UK. [65] In 1998, there were Trio,421 fatal crashes in the UK, the fewest since 1926; [66] in two thousand ten this number was further diminished to 1,857 and was attributed to the 2009–2010 scrappage scheme. [67]

The sizable traffic safety lead loved by the USA since the 1960s had narrowed significantly by 2002, with the US improvement percentages lagging in 16th place behind those of Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany, United Kingdom, Iceland, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Fresh Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland in terms of deaths per thousand vehicles, while in terms of deaths per one hundred million vehicle miles travelled, the USA had dropped from very first place to tenth place. [68]

Government-collected data, such as that from the U.S. Fatality Analysis Reporting System, showcase other countries achieving safety spectacle improvements over time greater than those achieved in the U.S.: [68]

Research on the trends in use of strong vehicles indicate that a significant difference inbetween the U.S. and other countries is the relatively high prevalence of pickup trucks and SUVs in the U.S. A two thousand three examine by the U.S. Transportation Research Board found that SUVs and pickup trucks are significantly less safe than passenger cars, that imported-brand vehicles tend to be safer than American-brand vehicles, and that the size and weight of a vehicle has a significantly smaller effect on safety than the quality of the vehicle’s engineering. [Sixty-nine] The level of large commercial truck traffic has substantially enlargened since the 1960s, while highway capacity has not kept tempo with the increase in large commercial truck traffic on U.S. highways. [70] [71] However, other factors exert significant influence; Canada has lower roadway death and injury rates despite a vehicle mix comparable to that of the U.S. [68] Nevertheless, the widespread use of truck-based vehicles as passenger carriers is correlated with roadway deaths and injuries not only directly by dint of vehicular safety spectacle per se, but also indirectly through the relatively low fuel costs that facilitate the use of such vehicles in North America; motor vehicle fatalities decline as fuel prices increase. [63] [72]

NHTSA has issued relatively few regulations since the mid-1980s; most of the vehicle-based reduction in vehicle fatality rates in the U.S. during the last third of the 20th Century were gained by the initial NHTSA safety standards issued from one thousand nine hundred sixty eight to one thousand nine hundred eighty four and subsequent voluntary switches in vehicle design and construction by vehicle manufacturers. [73]

Pregnant women Edit

When pregnant, women should proceed to use seatbelts and airbags decently. A University of Michigan investigate found that “unrestrained or improperly restrained pregnant women are Five.7 times more likely to have an adverse fetal outcome than decently restrained pregnant women”. [74] If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions are available from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier. [ citation needed ]

Infants and children Edit

Children present significant challenges in engineering and producing safe vehicles, because most children are significantly smaller and lighter than most adults. Additionally, children far from being just scaled down adults, still have an undeveloped skeletal system. This means that vehicle restraint systems such as airbags and seat belts, far from being effective, are hazardous if used to restrain youthful children. In recognition of this, many medical professionals and jurisdictions recommend or require that children under a particular age, height, and/or weight [ which? ] rail in a child seat and/or in the back seat, as applicable. [ citation needed ]

Within Europe ECE Regulation R44 dictates that children below one hundred fifty cm must travel in a child restraint that is adequate for their weight. Each country have their own adaptions of this Regulation. For example, in the United Kingdom, children must travel in a child restraint until they are one hundred thirty five cm tall or reach twelve years of age, which ever comes soonest. As another example in Austria the driver of passenger vehicles is responsible for people shorter than one hundred fifty cm and below fourteen years to be seated in an adequate child safety seat. Moreover, it is not permitted for children below the age of three to rail in a passenger vehicle without “security system” (which in practice means the vehicle is not tooled with any seat belts or technical systems like Isofix), whereas children inbetween three and fourteen years have to rail in the back seat. [75]

Sweden specify that a child or an adult shorter than one hundred forty cm is legally barred to rail in a place with an active airbag in front of it. [ citation needed ]

The majority of medical professionals and biomechanical engineers agree that children below the age of two year old are much safer if they travel in a rearward facing child restraint. [76]

Child safety locks and driver-controlled power window lockout controls prevent children from opening doors and windows from inwards the vehicle. [ citation needed ]

Infants left in cars

Very youthful children can perish from fever or cold if left unattended in a parked car, whether deliberately or through absentmindedness. [77] In two thousand four the U.S. NHTSA estimated twenty five fatalities per year among children left in hot cars. [78]

Teenage drivers Edit

In the UK, a total driving licence can be had at age 17, and most areas in the United States will issue a utter driver’s license at the age of 16, and all within a range inbetween fourteen and Legal. [79] In addition to being relatively inexperienced, teenage drivers are also cognitively immature, compared to other drivers. [80] This combination leads to a relatively high crash rate among this demographic. [81]

In some areas, fresh drivers’ vehicles must bear a warning sign to alert other drivers that the vehicle is being driven by an inexperienced and learning driver, providing them chance to be more cautious and to encourage other drivers to give novices more leeway. [82] In the U.S. Fresh Jersey has Kyleigh’s Law citing that teenage drivers must have a decal on their vehicle. [83]

Some countries, such as Australia, the United States, Canada and Fresh Zealand, have graduated levels of driver’s licence, with special rules. [84] By 2010, all US states required a graduated driver’s licence for drivers under age Legal. In Italy, the maximum speed and power of vehicles driven by fresh drivers is restricted. In Romania, the maximum speed of vehicles driven by fresh drivers (less than one year in practice) is twenty km/h lower than the national standard (except villages, towns and cities). Many U.S. states permit 18-year-olds to skip some requirements that junior drivers would face, which statistics demonstrate may be causing higher crash rates among fresh drivers. Fresh Jersey has the same requirements for fresh drivers up to the age of 21, which may obviate this problem. [85]

Elderly Edit

Insurance statistics in the United States indicate a 30% increase in the number of elderly killed, comparing one thousand nine hundred seventy five to 2000. [86] Several states require extra testing for elderly drivers. On a per-driver basis, the number of fatal and overall crashes decreases with age, with some exceptions for drivers over 75. [87] The overall trend may be due to greater practice and avoiding driving in adverse conditions. [86] However, on a per-miles-travelled basis, [88] drivers junior than 25-30 and older than 65-70 have significantly higher crash rates. Survivability of crashes decreases monotonically with the age of the victim. [88]

A common problem for the elderly is the question of when a medical condition or biological aging presents a serious enough problem that one should stop driving. In some cases, this means providing up some individual independence, but in urban areas often means relying more on public transportation. Many transit systems suggest discounted fares to seniors, and some local governments run “senior shuttles” specifically targeted at this demographic. [ citation needed ]

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